Fitness program design

PLANNING AN EXERCISE PROGRAM

INTRODUCTION

As you design your fitness program, keep these points in mind:

1. Consider your fitness goals. ...
2. Create a balanced routine. ...
3. Start low and progress slowly. ...
4. Build activity into your daily routine. ...
5. Plan to include different activities. ...
6. Try high-interval intensity training. ...
7. Allow time for recovery. ...
8. Put it on paper.

Starting a fitness program may be one of the best things you can do for your health. Physical activity can reduce your risk of chronic disease, improve your balance and coordination, help you lose weight — and even improve your sleep habits and self-esteem. And there's more good news. You can start a fitness program in only five steps.

1. Assess your fitness level

You probably have some idea of how fit you are. But assessing and recording baseline fitness scores can give you benchmarks against which to measure your progress. To assess your aerobic and muscular fitness, flexibility, and body composition, consider recording:

• Your pulse rate before and immediately after walking 1 mile (1.6 kilometers)
• How long it takes to walk 1 mile, or how long it takes to run 1.5 miles (2.41 kilometers)
• How many standard or modified pushups you can do at a time
• How far you can reach forward while seated on the floor with your legs in front of you
• Your waist circumference, just above your hipbones
• Your body mass index

2. Design your fitness program

It's easy to say that you'll exercise every day. But you'll need a plan. As you design your fitness program, keep these points in mind:

• Consider your fitness goals. Are you starting a fitness program to help lose weight? Or do you have another motivation, such as preparing for a marathon? Having clear goals can help you gauge your progress and stay motivated.
• Create a balanced routine. For most healthy adults, the Department of Health and Human Services recommends getting at least 150 minutes of moderate aerobic activity or 75 minutes of vigorous aerobic activity a week, or a combination of moderate and vigorous activity. The guidelines suggest that you spread out this exercise during the course of a week. Greater amounts of exercise will provide even greater health benefits.

But even small amounts of physical activity are helpful. Being active for short periods of time throughout the day can add up to provide health benefits.

Do strength training exercises for all major muscle groups at least two times a week. Aim to do a single set of each exercise, using a weight or resistance level heavy enough to tire your muscles after about 12 to 15 repetitions.

• Start low and progress slowly. If you're just beginning to exercise, start cautiously and progress slowly. If you have an injury or a medical condition, consult your doctor or an exercise therapist for help designing a fitness program that gradually improves your range of motion, strength and endurance.
• Build activity into your daily routine. Finding time to exercise can be a challenge. To make it easier, schedule time to exercise as you would any other appointment. Plan to watch your favorite show while walking on the treadmill, read while riding a stationary bike, or take a break to go on a walk at work.
• Plan to include different activities. Different activities (cross-training) can keep exercise boredom at bay. Cross-training using low-impact forms of activity, such as biking or water exercise, also reduces your chances of injuring or overusing one specific muscle or joint. Plan to alternate among activities that emphasize different parts of your body, such as walking, swimming and strength training.
• Try high-interval intensity training. In high-interval intensity training, you perform short bursts of high-intensity activity separated by recovery periods of low-intensity activity.
• Allow time for recovery. Many people start exercising with frenzied zeal — working out too long or too intensely — and give up when their muscles and joints become sore or injured. Plan time between sessions for your body to rest and recover.
• Put it on paper. A written plan may encourage you to stay on track.

3. Assemble your equipment

You'll probably start with athletic shoes. Be sure to pick shoes designed for the activity you have in mind. For example, running shoes are lighter in weight than cross-training shoes, which are more supportive.

If you're planning to invest in exercise equipment, choose something that's practical, enjoyable and easy to use. You may want to try out certain types of equipment at a fitness center before investing in your own equipment.

You might consider using fitness apps for smart devices or other activity tracking devices, such as ones that can track your distance, track calories burned or monitor your heart rate.

4. Get started

Now you're ready for action. As you begin your fitness program, keep these tips in mind:

• Start slowly and build up gradually. Give yourself plenty of time to warm up and cool down with easy walking or gentle stretching. Then speed up to a pace you can continue for five to 10 minutes without getting overly tired. As your stamina improves, gradually increase the amount of time you exercise. Work your way up to 30 to 60 minutes of exercise most days of the week.
• Break things up if you have to. You don't have to do all your exercise at one time, so you can weave in activity throughout your day. Shorter but more-frequent sessions have aerobic benefits, too. Exercising in short sessions a few times a day may fit into your schedule better than a single 30-minute session. Any amount of activity is better than none at all.
• Be creative. Maybe your workout routine includes various activities, such as walking, bicycling or rowing. But don't stop there. Take a weekend hike with your family or spend an evening ballroom dancing. Find activities you enjoy to add to your fitness routine.
• Listen to your body. If you feel pain, shortness of breath, dizziness or nausea, take a break. You may be pushing yourself too hard.
• Be flexible. If you're not feeling good, give yourself permission to take a day or two off.

5. Monitor your progress

Retake your personal fitness assessment six weeks after you start your program and then again every few months. You may notice that you need to increase the amount of time you exercise in order to continue improving. Or you may be pleasantly surprised to find that you're exercising just the right amount to meet your fitness goals.

If you lose motivation, set new goals or try a new activity. Exercising with a friend or taking a class at a fitness center may help, too.

Starting an exercise program is an important decision. But it doesn't have to be an overwhelming one. By planning carefully and pacing yourself, you can establish a healthy habit that lasts a lifetime.

Medical Evaluation

Fitness tests – also called fitness evaluations or assessments – include various tests and measurements that help determine your overall health and physical fitness. This testing is often done as part of designing an appropriate exercise program for an individual. Once the testing is complete, a specific workout routine can be created based on your current fitness level, any existing health conditions or physical limitations and your goals.

Fitness testing is most often performed at a gym or health club, medical wellness center or physical therapy facility. It is also part of evaluating an individual’s qualification for entering the military.

Fitness testing can include some or all of the following items:

• Health history – to determine if you have a heart condition, high blood pressure, issues with dizziness or balance, bone or joint problems, etc.
• Vital sign measurements – including resting heart rate, blood pressure, height, weight
• Body composition – body mass index (BMI), skin fold measurements, body fat analysis
• Endurance testing – to measure how efficiently your heart and lungs perform during physical activity. Tests can include timed walking or running sessions or other aerobic activities.
• Muscular strength testing – to measure the amount of force certain muscles can exert at one time and how long they can work before becoming fatigued. These tests may include push-ups and various strength and stability tests.
• Flexibility testing – to measure a person’s overall flexibility and range of motion

FITNESS TESTING

A fitness test, also known as a fitness assessment, is comprised of a series of exercises that help evaluate your overall health and physical status. There is wide of range of standardized tests used for these exams, some of which are intended for medical purposes and others of which establish whether you are qualified to participate (such as with the Army combat readiness test).

For general health and fitness purposes, the tests are considered the starting point for designing an appropriate exercise program.1 They are meant to ensure you won't be at risk of harm and provide the trainer with the insights needed to establish clear and effective fitness goals.

1.      General Health Evaluation

·         Before starting a fitness program, it is important to share your medical history with your trainer and to get the necessary approvals from your doctor to proceed.2

·         

·         Most fitness specialists will use one or more screening tools to help determine your baseline health. This may include obtaining vital sign measurements such as your height, weight, resting heart rate (RHR), and resting blood pressure (RBP).

·         Many trainers will also use a physical activity readiness questionnaire (PAR-Q) comprised of seven or more questions related to your general health.3 Among the questions, you may​ be asked about the types of medications you take, any problems you have with dizziness or pain, or any medical condition that may impair your ability to exercise.

2.      Body Composition Testing

Body composition describes the different components that make up your total body weight, including your muscles, bones, and fat. The most common methods for estimating body composition include:

• Body mass index (BMI), a generalized calculation of body fat based on your height and weight4
• Skinfold measurements in which calipers are used to estimate how much body fat there is in a fold of skin 
• Bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) in which electrical signals are sent from electrodes through the soles of your feet to your abdomen to estimate your body composition5

3.      Cardiovascular Endurance Testing

Cardiovascular endurance testing, also known as stress testing, measures how efficiently your heart and lungs work to supply oxygen and energy to your body during physical activity.6

Among the three most common tests used:

• 12-minute run tests are performed on a treadmill and compare your pre-exercise heart and respiration rates with your post-exercise heart and respiration rates.
• VO2 max testing is performed on a treadmill or stationary bike and uses a breathing device to measure your maximum rate of oxygen consumption during an activity.7
• Exercise stress testing is also performed on a treadmill or stationary bike and involves the use of a heart monitor and blood pressure cuff to measure your vital signs during exercise.

Some trainers will incorporate exercises such as sit-ups or push-ups to get a qualitative measurement of how you respond to specific exercises. These baseline results can be used at a later date to see if your health and fitness levels have improved.

4.      Strength and Endurance Testing

Strength testing measures the maximal amount of force a muscle group can exert at one time.8 Muscle endurance testing, by comparison, measures the length of time a muscle group can contract and release before it fatigues.

The exercises standardly used include the push-up test and core strength and stability test. In some cases, a trainer will use a metronome to see how long can you keep up with the rhythm. The results are then compared to people of the same age group and sex to establish your baseline levels.

Strength and endurance tests are valuable as they help the trainer pinpoint which muscle groups are stronger and which are vulnerable and in need of focused attention.

5.      Flexibility Testing

Measuring the flexibility of your joints is vital in determining whether you have postural imbalances,10 foot instability, or limitations in your range of motion.

There are a variety of tests used to measure flexibility. Among them:

• Sit-and-reach testing is used to measure tightness in your lower back and hamstring muscles.11 The test is performed while sitting on the floor with your legs fully extended. Flexibility is measured by the number of inches your hands are from your feet when reaching forward.
• Shoulder flexibility testing, sometimes called the zipper test, evaluates the flexibility and mobility of your shoulder joint. It involves reaching behind your neck and between your shoulders with one hand while reaching behind your back and toward your shoulders with the other.12 Flexibility is measured by how many inches apart your hands are from each other.
• Trunk lift testing is used to measure tightness in your lower back. It is performed while lying face-down on the floor. With your arms at your side, you would be asked to lift your upper body with just your back muscles. Flexibility is measured by how many inches you are able to lift yourself off the ground.

Principles of Training

Why do people get involved in physical activity?

People get involved in exercise for many reasons: to improve their health and physical condition, to achieve a sporting ambition, to relive the tension and stress of daily life, to lose weight, it makes them feel good. Participating in sport encourages co-operation in team sports, develops the element of competitiveness, provides a physical challenge and the opportunity to meet new people and make new friends.

Principles of Training

Training to improve an athlete's performance obeys the principles of training: specificity, overload, rest, adaptation and reversibility (SORAR).

Specificity

To improve the range of movement for a particular joint action, you have to perform exercises that involve that joint action. It is quite possible for an athlete to have good mobility in the shoulder joint but to have poor hip mobility. Conducting shoulder mobility exercises may further improve the shoulder mobility but it will not affect hip mobility.

In addition to developing general levels of all-around mobility in an athlete, coaches need to consider the specific mobility requirements of a given event. The coach can analyse the technique of his/her event, identify which joint actions are involved and determine which need to be improved in terms of the range of movement. A thrower, for example, might require improvements in his/her shoulder and spine mobility. A hurdler might need to develop his/her hip mobility.

The amount and nature of the mobility training required by each athlete will vary according to the individual athlete's event requirements and his/her range of movement for each joint action. It may be necessary to measure the range of movement for particular joint actions to determine the present range and future improvement.

Specificity is an important principle in strength training, where the exercise must be specific to the type of strength required and is therefore related to the particular demands of the event. The coach should have knowledge of the predominant types of muscular activity associated with his/her particular event, the movement pattern involved, and the type of strength required. Although specificity is important, every schedule must include exercises of a general nature (e.g. power clean, squat). These exercises may not relate too closely to the movement of any athletic event, but they do give a balanced development and provide a strong base upon which highly specific exercise can be built.

To use heavy throwing implements or weighted belts may seem the obvious solution to the specificity problem, but it is probable that by doing so the athlete will unconsciously develop compensatory movements in his/her technique in adjusting to the new weight. Most authorities consider that in the throwing events the training implement should be kept within 15% of the competition weight.

Can we be specific in the speed of movement? Training at low velocity increases low-velocity strength substantially but has little effect on high-velocity strength (Coyle and Fleming, 1980).

Is there any justification for slow velocity strength training for athletes who have to perform movements at great speed? Yes. Slow velocity training may be of value in stimulating maximum adaptation within the muscle. Muscle growth (an increase in contractile strength) is related to the amount of tension developed within the muscle (Goldberg, 1975). When an athlete performs high-velocity strength work, the force he/she generates is relatively low and therefore fails to stimulate substantial muscular growth. If performed extensively the athlete may not be inducing maximum adaptation with the muscles. It is important therefore for the athlete to use fast and slow movements to train the muscles.

Overload

When an athlete performs a mobility exercise, he/she should stretch to the end of his/her range of movement. In active mobility, the end of the range of movement is known as the active end position. Improvements in mobility can only be achieved by working at or beyond the active end position.

• Passive exercises involve passing the active end position, as the external force can move the limbs further than the active contracting of the agonist's muscles
• Kinetic mobility (dynamic) exercises use the momentum of the movement to bounce past the active end position

A muscle will only strengthen when forced to operate beyond its customary intensity. The load must be progressively increased to further adaptive responses as training develops, and the training stimulus is gradually raised. Overload can be progressed by:

• increasing the resistance e.g. adding 5kg to the barbell
• increasing the number of repetitions with a particular weight
• increasing the number of sets of the exercise (work)
• increasing the intensity- more work in the same time, i.e. reducing the recovery periods

Recovery

Rest is required for the body to recover from the training and to allow adaptation to take place. An inadequate amount of rest may lead to overtraining.

Adaptation

The body will react to the training loads imposed by increasing its ability to cope with those loads. Adaptation occurs during the recovery period after the training session is completed.

If exercises lasting less than 10 seconds (ATP-CP energy system) are repeated with a full recovery (approximately 3 to 5 minutes) then an adaptation in which stores of ATP and CP in the muscles are increased.

This means more energy is available more rapidly and increases the maximum peak power output. If overloads are experienced for periods of up to 60 seconds, with a full recovery, it is found that glycogen stores are enhanced.

The most noticeable effect of weight training with heavy loads on fast-twitch muscle fibres is larger and stronger muscles (hypertrophy).

The rate of adaptation will depend on the volume, intensity and frequency of the exercise sessions. In their recent investigation Burgomaster et al. (2008)^[3] reports that 6 weeks of low-volume, high-intensity sprint training-induced similar changes in selected whole-body and skeletal muscle adaptations as traditional high-volume, low-intensity endurance workouts undertaken for the same intervention period.

Hawley (2008)^[2] states that the time of adaptation may be quicker for high-intensity sprint training when compared to low-intensity endurance training, but that over a longer period, the two training regimens elicit similar adaptations.

Reversibility or Detraining

Improved ranges of movement can be achieved and maintained by regular use of mobility exercises. If an athlete ceases mobility training, his/her ranges of movement will decline over time to those maintained by his/her other physical activities.

When training ceases the training effect will also stop. It gradually reduces to approximately one-third of the rate of acquisition (Jenson and Fisher, 1972). Athletes must ensure that they continue strength training throughout the competitive period, although at a reduced volume, or newly acquired strength will be lost

Detraining risk for athletes

The effects of a long period of inactivity on physical fitness come from a UK case study of an Olympic rower (Godfrey et al. 2005)^[1], who took more than 20 weeks to fully recover his fitness after an eight-week lay-off.

Although the athlete in question took the time off in response to the need for a physical and mental break rather than because of illness and injury, this case study has clear implications for injured athletes.

The athlete, an elite heavyweight male rower and current Olympic champion, allowed himself the luxury of eight weeks of inactivity after competing in the Sydney Olympic Games in September 2000. His fitness was assessed using a lab-based incremental rowing test on four separate occasions: eight weeks before the Olympics; after eight weeks of inactivity; after eight weeks of retraining; and after a further 12 weeks of training.

The key findings were as follows: After eight weeks' detraining

• V02peak had decreased by 8%. After eight weeks of retraining it had increased by only 4%, returning to just below pre-Olympic values after a further 12 weeks;
• Power at peak oxygen consumption fell from a pre-Olympic value of 546W to 435W - a reduction of 20%. After eight weeks' retraining it had increased by 15%, resuming pre-Olympic values after a further 12 weeks;
• Power at reference blood lactate concentrations declined by 27% but returned to just below or just above pre-Olympic levels after 20 weeks' retraining.

The researchers recommend that training programs should limit periods of complete inactivity to no more than two to three weeks. Prolonged periods of inactivity should be avoided, and the training programme should incorporate some form of "maintenance" training where a prolonged break is desired.

Frequency refers to how often you do physical activity.For physical activity to be beneficial, you must do it several days a week. As you will see later, frequency depends on the type of activity you are doing and the part of fitness you want to develop. For example, to develop strength you might need exercise 2 days a week, but to lose fat daily activity is recommended.

·Intensity refers to how hard you perform physical activity.If the activity you do is too easy, you will not build fitness and gain other benefits. But remember, extremely vigorous activity can be harmful if you do not work up to it gradually. Intensity is determined differently depending on the type of activity you do and the type of fitness you want to build. For example, counting heart rate can be used to determine intensities for building cardiovascular fitness, while the amount of weight you lift can be used to determine the intensity for building strength

.·Time refers to how long you do physical activity.The length of time you should do physical activity depends on the type of activity you are doing and the part of fitness you want to develop. For example, to build flexibility you should stretch for 15 seconds or more for each muscle group, while to build cardiovascular fitness you need to be active continuously for a minimum of 20 minutes or more

·Type refers to the kind of activity you do to build a specific part of fitness or to gain a specific benefit.One type of activity may be used for building one part of fitness but may not work to build another type of fitness, for example, runningis a type of activity that builds cardiovascular fitness but it does little to develop flexibility.

THREE SEGMENTAL WORKOUTS

Aerobic exercise (cardio)

Often called cardio or endurance activities, aerobic activities are great for burning calories and paring down unwanted fat. They consist of activities that make the heart and lungs work harder: think of walking, biking, running, and swimming, for example.

Aerobic exercise temporarily boosts your heart rate and breathing, allowing more oxygen to reach your muscles and tuning up cardiovascular endurance. These are the activities that are associated with lower risk for many diseases and longer life span.

How much should you do?

The Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans recommend accumulating a weekly total of at least two- and-a-half hours of moderate aerobic activity, or one hour and 15 minutes of vigorous aerobic activity. (Note: If you prefer a mix, 10 minutes of vigorous activity equals roughly 20 minutes of moderate activity.) Raising your weekly goal to five hours of moderate activity, or two-and-a-half hours of vigorous activity, nets additional health benefits, especially weight loss. Each session should last at least 10 minutes.

Get started

Walking is usually safe for people of any age or level of fitness and can easily be adjusted to a comfortable speed. It doesn’t jar joints or raise your heart rate to dangerous levels. For a greater challenge, you can add time, distance, or hills to improve endurance or use resistance bands to tone while you walk.

Follow these tips to get the best workout from your walks:

Find a safe place to walk. Quiet streets with side- walks, park trails, athletic tracks at local schools, or shopping malls are often good choices.

Buy a good pair of shoes. Look for supportive but flexible soles that cushion your feet. Comfort is the key when buying shoes for walking. Shop at the end of the day when your feet are at their largest size. Choose shoes with “breathable” uppers, such as nylon mesh.

Dress for comfort and safety. Wear lighter clothes than you’d need if standing still. Dress in layers so you can peel off garments if you get hot. Light-colored clothes and a reflective vest help drivers notice you.

Do a five-minute warm-up and cool-down. Start off at a slower pace for your warm-up. At the end of your walk, slow down to cool down (even if you’re not sweaty).

Practice good technique:

• Walk at a brisk, steady pace. Slow down if you’re too breathless to carry on a conversation.
• Stand tall.
• Hold your head up so your chin is level and look 10 to 20 feet in front of you.
• Lift your chest.
• Keep your shoulders down.
• Point your toes straight ahead.
• Let your arms swing loosely at your sides. If you want to boost your speed, bend your elbows at 90-degree angles and swing your hands from waist to chest height.
• Land on your heel, then roll forward onto the ball of your foot, pushing off from your toes.
• Take comfortable strides. To go faster, take quicker steps instead of longer ones.

Strength training

Strength or resistance training, which typically employs equipment such as weight machines, free weights, or resistance bands or tubing, protects against bone loss and builds muscle. It also improves your body’s ratio of lean muscle mass to fat. It, too, deserves an important place in your exercise routine.

Technically, strength or resistance training takes place any time your muscles face a stronger-than-usual counterforce, such as pushing against a wall or lifting a dumbbell. Using progressively heavier weights or increasing resistance makes muscles stronger. Aside from toning you, strength training provides the functional strength you need to do everyday activities— lifting groceries, climbing stairs, rising from a chair, rushing for the bus—with ease.

How much should you do?

The Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans recommend strengthening exercises for all major muscle groups (legs, hips, back, chest, abdomen, shoulders, and arms) two or more times a week, with at least 48 hours between sessions. One set per session is effective, though two or three sets may be better, according to some research. Repeat each exercise eight to 12 times (reps). Your body needs at least 48 hours for recovery and repair between strength training sessions in order to build more muscle and get stronger.

Get started

These tips for safe strength training will help you get the most from your workouts:

Focus on form, not weight. Align your body correctly and move smoothly through each exercise. Poor form can prompt injuries. Many experts suggest starting with no weight, or very light weight, when learning a strength training routine. Concentrate on slow, smooth lifts and equally controlled descents while isolating a muscle group. You isolate muscles by holding your body in a specific position while consciously contracting and releasing the targeted muscles.

Tempo, tempo. Tempo helps you stay in control rather than undercut strength gains through momentum. For example, count to four while lifting a dumbbell, hold for two, then count to four while lowering it to the starting position.

Breathe. Blood pressure increases during a work- out, but it rises even more if you hold your breath while performing strength exercises. To avoid steep increases, exhale as you lift, push, or pull; inhale as you release. To make sure that you’re not holding your breath, count your tempo aloud. You can’t hold your breath when you’re talking.

Keep challenging muscles. The right weight differs depending on the exercise. Choose a weight that tires the targeted muscle or muscles by the last two repetitions (reps) while still allowing you to maintain good form. If you can’t do the minimum number of reps, choose a lighter weight. When it feels too easy, as if you could continue doing reps, challenge your muscles again by adding weight (roughly 1 to 2 pounds for arms, 2 to 5 pounds for legs) or using a stronger resistance band. Alternately, you can add another set of reps to your workout (up to three sets), or work out additional days per week. If you add weight, remember that you should be able to do the minimum number of reps with good form, and the targeted muscles should feel tired by the last two reps.

Give muscles time off

Strenuous exercise like strength training causes tiny tears in muscle tissue. These tears are good, not bad: muscles grow stronger as the tears knit up. Always allow at least 48 hours between sessions for muscles to recover. So, if you do a strenuous full-body strength workout on Monday, wait until at least Wednesday to repeat it. It is fine to do aerobic exercise on the days between your strength training. If you’re doing a partial-body strength session, however, you might do upper-body exercises on Monday, lower-body exercises on Tuesday, upper-body exercises on Wednesday, lower-body exercises on Thursday, etc., and also do aerobic exercise on as many days as possible.

Balance exercises

Our sense of balance typically worsens as we age. It can be further compromised by medical conditions like neuropathy (a complication of diabetes or certain chemotherapy drugs) that can cause tingling, pain, and numbness in the feet; side effects from other medications; uncorrected vision problems; or a lack of flexibility. Poor balance often leads to falls, which can cause head injuries and temporarily or permanently disabling injuries to the bones and nervous system. Hip fractures, particularly, can lead to serious health complications and can impair independence.

Older adults at risk for falls can benefit from a combination of walking, strength training, and balance exercises. Balance-enhancing activities include tai chi, yoga, and Pilates. Strength training exercises that work core muscles in your abdomen and back also help with balance.

How much should you do?

For older adults at risk for falls, the guidelines recommend 30 minutes of balance training and muscle strengthening exercises three times a week, plus at least 30 minutes of walking activities twice or more weekly.

Flexibility exercises

Flexibility exercises like stretching and yoga gently reverse the shortening and tightening of muscles that typically occur with disuse and age. Shorter, stiffer muscle fibers may make you vulnerable to injuries and contribute to back pain and balance problems.

Frequently performing exercises that isolate and stretch elastic fibers surrounding muscles and tendons helps counteract this. A well-stretched muscle more easily achieves its full range of motion. This improves athletic performance—imagine an easier, less restricted golf swing or tennis serve—and functional abilities, such as reaching, bending, or stooping during daily tasks. Stretching can also be a great way to get you moving in the morning or a way to relax after a long day. Activities such as yoga combine stretching and relaxation and also improve balance, a wonderful combination.

However, note that experts no longer recommend stretching before exercise. Prolonged stretching impedes the maximum contractile force of muscles. For example, stretching prior to jumping decreases jump height. Instead, experts now recommend starting off your exercise with a warm-up, such as an easy walk or a sport-specific routine such as serving some tennis balls and practicing ground strokes before a match. This increases the movement of blood and oxygen to the muscles. Then, when muscles are warm and pliable—for example, after five to 10 minutes of exercise—you can stretch. Or, even better, do your flexibility exercises as your post-workout cool-down.

How much should you do?

The Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans present no specific recommendations for making flexibility exercises part of your routine. However, the American College of Sports Medicine recommends that older adults do flexibility exercises on the same days as aerobic or strength activities, or at least twice a week.

Get started

When starting a stretching routine, follow these tips for safety:

• Check with your doctor. If you have joint disease or arthritis, or if you’ve had a joint replacement, check with your doctor before starting stretching exercises.
• Warm up first. Warm muscles are more flexible. Warm up for five to 10 minutes first, or save stretching for your cool-down routine after exercising.
• Stretch all muscle groups. Just as with strength training, stretching should include all muscle groups.
• No bouncing. Never bounce as you stretch. This triggers a contracting reflex that actually tightens the muscle you’re trying to loosen.
• Feel mild tension only. Extend your muscle to the point where you feel mild tension and hold that position. You should never feel pain.
• Breathe. Breathe easily through your nose while stretching.
• Hold and repeat. The best results come from holding a stretch for 10 to 30 seconds and repeating each stretch two to six times for a total of one minute.

Exercise Program Design: Evidence-Based Guidelines

Exercise program design is considered both an art and a science.  The science is a critical part of the process, as prescription of any exercise variable requires an understanding of science-based principles [2]. In resistance training, these variables include: volume, intensity, tempo, rest intervals and frequency.  The successful achievement of a specific training outcome (i.e. hypertrophy, strength, power, muscular endurance) will be largely determined by proper manipulation of these training variables.  This article will provide a brief overview of each training variable and how such variables can be manipulated to achieve the desired training adaptation.

Exercise Program Design Variables

Volume

Volume in exercise program design describes the amount of exercise performed within a  specific time period [14].  For example, volume within a training session or over a weekly basis [12, 14]. Volume is defined as either [12, 14]:

(i) Total repetitions (sets x repetitions)
(ii) Volume load (sets x repetitions x resistance)

Repetitions

Training volume in exercise program design is prescribed according to the number of repetitions per set, number of sets per session, and the number of sessions per week [14].  Repetitions can be classified into three approximate ranges [12]:

1. Low (1 to 5)
2. Moderate (6 to 12)
3. High (15 or more)

Low repetitions are shown to be optimal for increasing muscle strength with minimal benefit to muscle hypertrophy [12].  Lifting at low repetition ranges allows for heavier weights to be used and for maximal muscular force and tension to be exerted [12].  Adaptions in muscular strength are associated with an improved response of the nervous system [12].  Motor units, which are individual neurons that innervate muscle fibers, become more synchronised and recruited in greater numbers under heavier loads [12]. Additionally, nerve impulses are stimulated at higher frequencies, all of which contribute to improved muscular strength [12].

Moderate repetitions (6 to 12) are optimal for muscle hypertrophy [2, 6].  This repetition range allows for increased tension to be exerted by the working muscles.  Also, at moderate repetitions, muscle tension is maintained long enough (time-under-tension) to enhance muscle damage and fatigue, both essential for muscle growth [12].

Using higher repetitions (15 or more) is better suited to achieving adaptations in muscular endurance (i.e. muscles ability to work sub maximally over a longer period) [12].  Working at higher repetition ranges requires less maximal force or muscle tension, however time-under-tension is enhanced from lifting over a longer duration [12].  The benefit of increased time-under-tension is an accumulation of metabolites in the blood (i.e. lactate, inorganic phosphate, hydrogen ions) that stimulate muscle protein synthesis and muscle growth [6].

Sets

A set in exercise program design is defined as a group of consecutive repetitions [8].  The literature shows that a single set performed to failure is enough to induce muscle hypertrophy and strength gains in both untrained and trained subjects [5].  However, a larger body of evidence supports the use of multiple sets over single sets for maximising muscle strength and growth.  A recent (2016) systematic review by Schoenfeld and colleagues showed a dose-response relationship whereby higher volumes (more sets per muscle per week) of resistance training resulted in greater hypertrophic gains compared to lower volumes [10].  As a general guideline for exercise program design, Schoenfeld recommends 2-4 sets per exercise, although this is more dependent on program design [12].  For time restricted training, lower volumes (<5 sets per muscle per week) is sufficient to gain muscle [13].  However, for those that can allocate more time to training, more sets (10+) per muscle per week, up to a certain limit, would lead to greater hypertrophy gains [10].

Intensity

 

Intensity, in the context of this article, is defined by load or the amount of weight lifted.  Among exercise variables, it is found to be the greatest driver of muscle hypertrophy and strength, even  more than volume [7, 12].  Intensity, in exercise program design, can be determined by repetition maximum (RM), defined by the maximum amount of weight lifted with correct technique for given number of repetitions [2].  For example, a 5RM is the maximum amount lifting with correct technique for five repetitions.

Training intensity, should be manipulated in exercise program design according to the desired goal and is generally determined by repetition range [2, 6].  For training goals related to increasing muscular strength, intensities of approximately 90 to 100 percent of 1RM is advocated [2, 12].  Heavier loads allow for maximal muscle force/tension to be generate, which is conducive to increasing muscular strength [12].  For example, someone with a 1RM squat of 50kg would use loads of 45kg to 50kg.  Training intensities for strength are generally applied within repetition ranges of 1 to 5 [12].

For training goals associated with muscle hypertrophy, moderate intensities of 65 to 85 percent 1RM are optimal for muscle development [12].  Moderate intensities allow for an ideal combination of sufficient muscle force/tension and time-under-tension that provide muscle fatigue and damage, both critical for muscle hypertrophy [12].  Repetition ranges of approximately 6 to 12 are associated with these intensities [2, 6, 12].

Lower intensities of approximately 60 percent or less are best suited to endurance related goals with less of an impact on hypertrophy or strength [12].  The build up of metabolites is advantageous for promoting muscle protein synthesis, however, muscle tension is considerably reduced compared with moderate or higher training intensities  [2, 6, 12].  Training intensities for endurance is typically applied to repetitions of 15 or more [12].

Tempo

 

Tempo or velocity in exercise program design refers to the speed at which repetitions are performed [6].

Tempo is divided into three different contractions [6]:

1. Eccentric (lowering)
2. Isometric (static)
3. Concentric (lifting)

This variable is expressed numerically in seconds and typically represented in four parts.  For example, a tempo of 2-1-0-1, would refer to a two second eccentric lowering, one second isometric hold in the bottom position, zero second concentric raise, and a one second isometric hold in the top position [8, 12].

For training adaptations related to improving strength, faster tempos (<1 second concentric, 1 second eccentric) have been found to be superior to slower tempos (1-2 seconds concentric, 1-2 seconds eccentric) [4,6].  Because force = mass x acceleration, intentionally slowing tempo would lead to reductions in force production as load would need to be lessened to compensate for a slower tempo [6].  Muscular force, particularly during the eccentric phase of a lift, is highly important for muscle hypertrophy, therefore using very slow tempos (i.e. 15 seconds per repetition) is counterproductive to muscle development [12].  Although, some research exists demonstrating that slower tempos can enhance protein synthesis (24-30 hours post workout), provided the lift is taken to failure [3].

As general guidelines for exercise program design, eccentric tempos of 2 to 3 seconds with an explosive concentric phase are beneficial for muscle growth [12].  However, the literature indicates wider ranges of tempos from 0.5 – 8.0 seconds per repetition can be applied for muscle hypertrophy [11].

Applying an isometric hold at either the bottom or top of a lift would increase time-under-tension, provided muscle tension is maintained, which may stimulate increased motor unit recruitment, muscle firing frequency, and force development [1].  Paused isometric holds at the bottom of a lift (i.e. squat or bench press) using high loads (>85 of 1RM) are commonly used to enhance strength gains.  As a general recommendation for exercise program design, maintaining constant tension at the bottom and top of a lift are suggested in contrast to applying longer isometric holds [12].

Rest Intervals

 

A rest interval in exercise program design is defined as the length of time between the end of one set to the start of another set or exercise [12].  Rest periods greatly influences the adaptive response to resistance training and its length is largely related to intensity (load) applied [6].  Rest intervals can be classified into three approximate ranges [12]:

1. Short – 30-60 seconds or less
2. Moderate – 1-2 minutes
3. Long – 3 minutes or more

Moderate rest intervals are beneficial for muscle hypertrophy and are found to be potent anabolic stimulators [6].  Hypertrophy training that uses moderate-to-heavy loads performed at moderate repetitions (6-12) rely primarily on energy provided by the adenosine triphosphate (ATP)- phosphocreatine (PCr) system and glycolysis [6].  These rest periods allow for metabolite accumulation in the blood (i.e. lactate), stimulation of anabolic hormones (i.e growth hormone, testosterone), and enhanced localised blood flow, all of which help to stimulate muscle growth [6].

Short rest intervals are best when training for muscular endurance [6, 12].  Endurance training that uses light loads performed at high repetitions (15 or more) primarily utilises aerobic metabolism for energy [6].  Training with short rest periods allows for enhanced metabolite accumulation, increased mitochondrial and capillary numbers and improved lactate buffering capacity [6, 12].

Although short and moderate rest intervals are beneficial for muscle endurance and hypertrophy, these rest periods have detrimental effects to strength and power [6].  Strength and power that uses heavy loads performed at low repetitions (1-6) rely on the ATP-PC energy system, which is best replenished with longer rest periods [6].  For strength, 2 minute rest intervals are advocated, while for power training, rest intervals of 4-8 minutes may be necessary to fully recuperate taxed energy systems [9].

Frequency

 

Training frequency in exercise program design refers to the number of training sessions completed within a specified period (i.e. one week) [2].  The duration between gym sessions is critical for ensuring sufficient muscular and neurological recovery [2].  Another aspect of great importance is selecting training frequencies to maximise protein synthesis [12].  Returning to the gym before the body has recuperated can severely impair protein synthesis as muscle damage persists [12].  Moreover, impairing the body’s recovery will negatively impact force production and the amount of weight that can be lifted in subsequent
training sessions [12].

Amongst the untrained, a training frequency of 1-3 days per week is found to promote muscular adaptations [2].  As training experience increases, research shows that frequencies of 3-4 days per week may be required to elicit further training adaptations [2].  Among advanced weightlifters and bodybuilders, frequencies of 4-6 days or more per week are found to enhance strength and metabolic adaptions [6].  However, the organisation of workouts at higher-frequencies of training become increasingly important to avoid overtraining [2, 6].

Weekly training frequency directly impacts total training volume [12].  For example, if within-session training volume remains constant and the number of training sessions are increased, total training volume will increase.  The danger with increasing frequency under these circumstances is an increased risk of overtraining [12].  Given this, exercise program design, using either split routine or total-body training, should be structured to ensure adequate recovery.

As a general recommendation for exercise program design, Schoenfeld recommends at least 3 training sessions per week to maximise muscle hypertrophy and a minimum of 48 hours between sessions that train the same muscle group [12].

Summary

Exercise program design is a complex process that involves manipulation of multiple variables.  Some of these variables include volume, intensity, tempo, rest intervals, and frequency.  The scientific literature provides highly valuable information as to how these variables should be manipulated to accelerate and maximise the desired training adaptation.  Prior to engaging in resistance training, an individual or personal trainer should consider the desired objective then apply evidence-based guidelines to justify exercise prescription.

warm up

Warmups and cool-downs generally involve doing your activity at a slower pace and reduced intensity.

Warming up helps prepare your body for aerobic activity. A warmup gradually revs up your cardiovascular system by raising your body temperature and increasing blood flow to your muscles. Warming up may also help reduce muscle soreness and lessen your risk of injury.

Warm up right before you plan to start your workout. In general, warm up by focusing first on large muscle groups, such as your hamstrings. Then you can do exercises more specific to your sport or activity, if necessary.

Begin by doing the activity and movement patterns of your chosen exercise, but at a low, slow pace that gradually increases in speed and intensity. This is called a dynamic warmup. A warmup may produce mild sweating, but generally won't leave you fatigued.

Benefits

·         increases blood flow to the muscles, which enhances the delivery of oxygen and nutrients;

·         warms your muscles, which promotes the energy-releasing reactions used during exercise and makes the muscles more supple;

·         prepares your muscles for stretching;

·         prepares your heart for an increase in activity;

·         prepares you mentally for the upcoming exercise;

·         primes your nerve-to-muscle pathways to be ready for exercise; and

·         prevents unnecessary stress and fatigue being placed on your muscles and heart, which can occur if you exercise strenuously without a warm-up.

Here are some examples of warm-up activities:

·         To warm up for a brisk walk, walk slowly for five to 10 minutes.

·         To warm up for a run, walk briskly for five to 10 minutes.

·         To warm up for swimming, swim slowly at first and then pick up the tempo as you're able.

cool down

Cooling down after your workout allows for a gradual recovery of preexercise heart rate and blood pressure. Cooling down may be most important for competitive endurance athletes, such as marathoners, because it helps regulate blood flow. Cooling down doesn't appear to help reduce muscle stiffness and soreness after exercise, but more research is needed.

Cooling down is similar to warming up. You generally continue your workout session for five minutes or so, but at a slower pace and reduced intensity.

BENEFITS

·         helps your heart rate and breathing to return towards resting levels gradually;

·         helps avoid fainting or dizziness, which can result from blood pooling in the large muscles of the legs when vigorous activity is stopped suddenly;

·         helps to remove metabolites (intermediate substances formed during metabolism) from your muscles, such as lactic acid, which can build up during vigorous activity (lactic acid is most effectively removed by gentle exercise rather than stopping suddenly); and

·         helps prepare your muscles for the next exercise session, whether it's the next day or in a few days' time.

Here are some examples of cool-down activities:

·         To cool down after a brisk walk, walk slowly for five to 10 minutes.

·         To cool down after a run, walk briskly for five to 10 minutes.

·         To cool down after swimming, swim laps leisurely for five to 10 minutes.

Heart-Rate Training

Heart-rate training uses—surprise—your heart rate, measured in beats per minute (bpm) or as a percentage of your maximum heart rate (MHR), as a guide for intensity.

Instead of training by pace, you use personalized zones and a heart-rate monitor to ensure your cardiorespiratory system is working at a specific effort for a set amount of time.

By working out in each heart-rate zone, you’re making sure you’re not just pushing yourself to the max, you’re also holding yourself back from pushing too hard, which can help you avoid overtraining. And since your maximum heart rate is unique to you, using it to create training zones means you’re getting a much more personalized workout.

How to Find Your Zones

Your heart rate is one of the most accurate measurements of intensity and effort during a workout. Everyone has a resting heart rate, which is best measured when you first wake up, and a maximum heart rate, or the upper limit of what your cardiovascular system can handle during physical activity. Between these two values are different zones that mark your effort.

There are five zones: very light, light, moderate, hard, and very hard.

·         Zone 1: Very light, 50 percent to 60 percent of MHR

·         Zone 2: Light, 60 percent to 70 percent of MHR

·         Zone 3: Moderate, 70 percent to 80 percent of MHR

·         Zone 4: Hard, 80 percent to 90 percent of MHR

·         Zone 5: Very hard, 90 percent to 100 percent of MHR

Maximum and Target Heart Rate

This table shows target heart rate zones for different ages. Your maximum heart rate is about 220 minus your age.³

Now that you have a target, you can monitor your heart rate to make sure you’re in the zone. As you exercise, periodically check your heart rate.

Take your pulse on the inside of your wrist, on the thumb side.

• Use the tips of your first two fingers (not your thumb) and press lightly over the artery.
• Count your pulse for 30 seconds and multiply by 2 to find your beats per minute.

Age	Target HR Zone 50-85%	Average Maximum Heart Rate, 100%
20 years	100-170 beats per minute (bpm)	200 bpm
30 years	95-162 bpm	190 bpm
35 years	93-157 bpm	185 bpm
40 years	90-153 bpm	180 bpm
45 years	88-149 bpm	175 bpm
50 years	85-145 bpm	170 bpm
55 years	83-140 bpm	165 bpm
60 years	80-136 bpm	160 bpm
65 years	78-132 bpm	155 bpm
70 years	75-128 bpm	150 bpm