Scientific principles of Officiating and Coaching

UNIT – V

Principles of Officiating and Coaching

Principles of coaching such as developing a philosophy of coaching, developing coaching objectives, coaching styles, understanding and utilizing sports psychology, communication skills, goal setting and motivation, teaching basic fundamentals, and coach’s role in the community.

General Principles

1.Respect of life and another person

2.Promoting health and welfare

3.Responsibility for raising children

4.Democracy, honesty and integrity

5.Equal rights to participate in sports

6.Respect of nature

Up-to-date principles

7. Tolerance and multicultural activities

8. Anti-doping work

9. Policy with alcohol, drugs and medicine

10. Prevention of violence

11. Prevention of sexual harassment

12. Security and comfort of spectators

13. Financial balance

Principles of officiating such as determining your officiating philosophy and your officiating style, setting and achieving professional goals,communicating effectively with other officials, coaches, and athletes, developing your decision-making skills, and managing conflict effectively, explaining your legal responsibilities, legal rights, and business responsibilities, working effectively with local and regional associations, managing your officiating career.

General Principles:

1.      Learn about officiating past and present

2. Consider officiating as a lifetime career
3. Determine your officiating style
4. Set and achieve professional goals
5. Communicate effectively with other officials, coaches, and athletes
6. Develop your decision-making skills
7. Implement mental training strategies in your officiating regimen
8. Manage conflict effectively
9. Be aware of the principles of personal fitness
10. Create a personal fitness plan
11. Understand your legal responsibilities
12. Explain your legal rights and business responsibilities
13. Manage your time wisely

Recreation:

Recreation is an activity of leisure, leisure being discretionary time.^[1] The "need to do something for recreation" is an essential element of human biology and psychology.^[2] Recreational activities are often done for enjoyment, amusement, or pleasure and are considered to be "fun".

The term recreation appears to have been used in English first in the late 14th century, first in the sense of "refreshment or curing of a sick person",^[3] and derived turn from Latin (re: "again", creare: "to create, bring forth, beget").

Recreational sports games are ideal for people who want to avoid the pressure and rigorous training of mainstream seasonal sports. Recreational sports can still be highly competitive but often are mainly for enjoyment with friends, classmates or coworkers on weekends and during leisurely outings. These sports typically require little equipment and often can be played almost anywhere.

Purpose of Recreation games:

The purpose of this activity is to instruct students on how to play and enjoy various types of recreational games that can be played at home, family reunions, church functions, etc.

Recreational activities

Recreation is an essential part of human life and finds many different forms which are shaped naturally by individual interests but also by the surrounding social construction.^[2] Recreational activities can be communal or solitary, active or passive, outdoors or indoors, healthy or harmful, and useful for society or detrimental. A significant section of recreational activities are designated as hobbies which are activities done for pleasure on a regular basis. A list of typical activities could be almost endless including most human activities, a few examples being reading, playing or listening to music, watching movies or TV, gardening, hunting, sports, studies, and travel. Some recreational activities - such as gambling, recreational drug use, or delinquent activities - may violate societal norms and laws.

Adventure Racing

Adventure racing is an extreme recreational sport in which individuals and teams charge through obstacle courses for the sheer thrill of completing the challenge and matching skills and stamina with other participants. The obstacles can vary from military-style rope and wall barriers to zombies and fire pits.

Ultimate

Ultimate, also known as Ultimate Frisbee, is a recreational game frequently played on U.S. college campuses. It's a non-contact team sport that involves passing a flying plastic disc to teammates across a large playing field. Teams score when they complete a pass in the defending team's end zone.

Dodgeball

Dodgeball can be considered a full-contact sport, but in essence it's a relatively harmless recreational game between two teams -- typically six players each -- that face off against each other in a gym or other enclosed area. Players score points by throwing balls across a boundary line and hitting opposing players.

Table Tennis

Table tennis, also called ping pong, is a popular recreational sport for two to four players. The fast-paced game is similar to tennis but played on a much smaller scale using a table, specialized paddles and white plastic balls.

 

Recreation as a career

A recreation specialist would be expected to meet the recreational needs of a community or assigned interest group. Educational institutions offer courses that lead to a degree as a Bachelor of Arts in recreation management. People with such degrees often work in parks and recreation centers in towns, on community projects and activities. Networking with instructors, budgeting, and evaluation of continuing programs are common job duties.

In the United States, most states have a professional organization for continuing education and certification in recreation management. The National Recreation and Park Association administers a certification program called the CPRP (Certified Park and Recreation Professional)^[16] that is considered a national standard for professional recreation specialist practices

Lead Up Games

Many students enjoy the game aspect of sports, but don’t enjoy practicing isolated skills. Typically, students become more interested in learning if they play in game-like scenarios. Therefore, lead-up games provide an opportunity for students to practice skills in a simulated game situation. The combination of games and drills provides optimal learning experiences for the students. 

Safety is the Key

     It must be recognized that all physical activity involves an element of risk. There is an obligation on the part of all participants to minimize that risk. While most of these activities are designed to be used in limited spaces such as the classroom, teachers must use professional judgment and discretion when selecting activities. Safety awareness based on up-to-date information, common sense observation, action and foresight is the key to safe programming.

     Activities should provide opportunities that enhance self-confidence and provide a safe environment in which children are physically active participants. Safety is a shared responsibility and students of all ages need to take responsibility for their own safety.

Catch and Score

Equipment Needed: 5 elephant skin balls or 5 volleyballs or 5 beach balls…

                                      1 volleyball net and standards

Description of activity:

• Class is divided into teams of 4-6
• Two teams contest a mini game first
• Other teams wait their turn and stand behind the end line on the side they are on
• When teams are ready, teacher rolls in 5 balls which team members pick up
• Object for tossing team is to toss ball over net in scoring area however, they are to try not to let opposing team members catch the tossed ball(s)
• If a ball is caught without a bounce, the person catching the ball is to bring it to the designated sideline area
• First team to catch and place three balls wins and remains on the court
• The team that does not win goes to the end line and the next team waiting comes on the floor

Variations:

·         Have all teams enter from one end line

·         Winning team remains on queens/kings court losing team joins the end of the waiting line

Or: if using two waiting lines, to make sure one team does not remain on all the time, have a limit of three consecutive wins and then that team must go off the court as well.

Catch, Toss, Set and Over

Equipment: two volleyballs (or substitute type balls)

·         Net in play

Description of activity: divide class into groups of 4-6 students each

·         teacher tosses a ball to one team

·         the first contact must be a catch

·         the person who catches the ball tosses towards a player at the net (preferably in the middle)

·         that person volleys (or bumps) a ball along the net to another player who then plays the ball over towards the other team and within the scoring area

·         the process then repeats where the first contact is a catch

·         if the ball falls or if the second contact is caught, that team must leave the floor and the next team enters the court

Beach Ball Volleyball

Equipment needed: 3 beach balls

                                  3 trainer (floater, large sized) volleyballs

                                  1 official sized volleyball

                                  1 volleyball net

Description of Activity:

• divide class into 2 groups
• 9 players on each side of the net will be on the floor at one time (3 rows with 3 in each row)
• begin by using a beach ball as the volleyball
• this allows for greater reaction time
• (ref) teacher throws the ball into play from the sidelines
• the object of the game is to get the ball over the net like in regular volleyball
• the official rules of lifting, holding, throwing etc. do not apply
• any part of the body may be used to return the ball (caution with  kicking of the ball)
• when the ball hits the floor, pick it up and throw the ball back into play
• Rotation: When the teacher calls rotate, the last row of 3 players will rotate to the center row. The center row rotates forward to the front row and the front row rotates to the back of the court. ( an alternative rotation could be to do so in an S manner, one place at a time)
• after playing with one beach ball, the ref will throw one more into the playing area and eventually another so that 2 or 3 balls are in play at the same time
• eventually the beach balls are taken out and replaced with the trainer/floater volleyballs and eventually the actual official sized volleyball would be introduced a few classes later

Blind Volleyball

Equipment needed: 3 beach balls

                                  3 trainer (floater, large sized) volleyballs

                                  1 official sized volleyball

                                  1 volleyball net

                                  2 parachutes or large blankets

Description of Activity:

• set up the court the same way as in beach ball volleyball i.e. one net and 9 players per side
• drape 2 large blankets or parachutes over the net so that both teams will not be able to see each other
• players will not see the ball coming but only hear the play from their side
• the ref puts the ball into play from the sidelines
• follow all the same rules as beach ball volleyball

Four Net Soccer

Equipment required:Pinnies to differentiate the team members (you can do without pinnies if there are none available);

                                     4 nets or objects that will represent a scoring area;

                                     4-6 elephant skinned soccer balls (for indoor)

                                     4-6 utility balls if outdoors

Description of Activity:

·         Divide class into four even teams (based on level of ability);

·         Set up four nets (which can be gym mats which are folded to look like nets);

·         Provide pinnies of like colour to the various teams;

·         Designate a net for each team to defend;

·         The object of the game is for all teams to attempt to close down the other three nets in play;

·         This is accomplished by having five goals scored on that net;

·         Once five goals are scored on a net, that net is then closed down;

·         The team that had been defending that net now tries to assist others in closing the remaining nets;

·         The last net standing/left open is the winner;

***Of note***

There are no goalies…no players are allowed to pick up the ball(s) with their hands as would be the case if he or she was a goalie.

Sideline Soccer

Equipment needed: pinnies to differentiate between teams

                               soccer ball

                               end nets

Description of Activity:

• Divide students into two teams
• Select lines of 4-6 to play on each shift (do this for both teams unless students are older and can do this on their own)
• Use regular soccer rules while two teams try to score on each other
• Students who are not on the regular court will line each side line(and end line if you wish)
• If the ball makes its way to a side line player, she/he can pick it up and do throw  in to a team mate
• After a period of time, have next line/shift go onto the court
• First shift students take the place of the players who are now on the court.

Partner Soccer Score:

Equipment needed: one ball between two students

Description of Activity:

• Partners choose their own space and stand 6-8 metres apart
• Partners face each other
• On the go signal, one partner attempts to pass/shoot the ball between their partners out stretched legs
• Then the partner who is trying to put the ball through the legs of the other person must chase the ball and dribble it back to the starting point where she/he tries to score again
• Continue for i.e. 1 minute then switch roles
• Partners count own goals scored winner assigns a task for the non-winner to perform

Variation: do the above using teams instead of individuals…

Soccer/Cricket Relay

Equipment needed: 1 pylon or plastic bowling pin;

                                  2 pylons to act as a base

                                  1 elephant skin ball (volleyball sized)

Description of Activity:

·         Divide class into two teams of equal ability;

·         Decide which team is at bat first;

·         The team that is at bat must have each player kick and then run once per inning/over;

·         The fielding team will use a scatter formation to cover as much of the fielding area as possible;

·         The fielding team is to designate one student to act as the bowler/pitcher;

·         That persons role is to roll the ball towards a pylon that is set up in the batting area;

·         If he/she is able to knock the pylon/pin over, the batter is out;

·         The fielding team will re-set the pylon and then bowl again;

·         If the batting team does not have their next batter in position, they risk having another out posted against them is the bowler is able to knock the home area pylon/pin over;

·         Once a batter has successfully kicked the bowled ball towards the opponents, he/she is to run back and forth to and from the designated area as many times as possible;

·         This is being done while the fielding team is getting the kicked ball and is passing it over and under to all students on their team who have since lined up in a row;

·         Once the fielding team has done the complete over under relay, the process repeats;

Variations: Have a student act as a catcher and the ball must be delivered to that person before the process can begin again…remember; all players are to have a turn before the roles are switched.  This activity is a variation of the game known as Alaskan Baseball.

End Ball

Players: 8-10 on a team (teams unlimited)

Equipment: Pinnies, basketballs

Area: Playground/ Gymnasium

Skills: Passing and Catching

Description of Activity

• Two- Three players from each team are selected as end-zone players.
• The object is for each team to throw the ball to a team mate in the end zone for a score.
• The game starts with one end zone team player in possession of a basketball. This player tries to throw the ball to one of his/her fielders, and then the game begins.
• There is no dribbling in this game, encouraging players to move without the ball.
• Teams get a point for catching in the end zone and then a point for making the basket after a designated amount of points; you may switch the end zone players.

Variation: Have more then one basketball going at one time, encouraging students to keep their head up at all times and communicate where the pass is going to go.

(Adapted from “Lead-Up Games to Team Sports”- O. William Blake/ Anne M. Volp)

Keep Away

Players: Individual or team

Equipment: Basketballs

Area: Playground/ Gymnasium

Skills: Dribbling, guarding

Description of Activity

• The object of the game is to knock away a player’s ball from the playing area while continuing to maintain your own dribble.
• The same guarding principles in basketball apply, where the player can not make physical contact with another player.
• The ball has to be knocked out of the playing area in order for elimination to occur.

Variations/ Recommendations- Start with a large playing area, so that most people will have success; decrease area as more and more people get eliminated. When students start becoming eliminated, have students do around the world ball handling to work on skills and keep active.

Around The World

Players: 6-8 on a team (teams unlimited)

Equipment: Basketballs and Goals

Area: Playground/ Gymnasium

Skills: Shooting

Description of Activity:

• The object of the game is to see which team can have the most members make baskets from the designated spots.
• Each team member begins at the first spot and continues as long as he/she makes the shot.
• When he/she misses, he/she has two options.
• The first is to stay at his/her current spot and wait for next turn. The second option is to “risk it” which means he/she gets another chance to make the shot where he/she missed.
• If he/she misses the “risk it” shot, he/she starts over at the beginning on his/her next turn.
• The team completing the most circuits is the winner.

(Adapted from “Lead-Up Games to Team Sports”- O. William Blake/ Anne M. Volp)

Bump

Equipment needed: two basketballs and some basketball hoops

Description of activity:

·         Students line up in one behind the other at the foul line

·         The first two students have a basketball

·         The object is to bump out other players and be the last one standing

·         The first player shoots a foul shot and player two does the same right after

·         If player one scores before player two she/he retrieves their ball and passes back to the next player in line who then shoots

·         Now player three is trying to bump player two

·         If players miss their foul or free shot, they must try to score before the player after them scores. 

·         If the player following scores, the player in front is eliminated or bumped

Sideline Basketball

Players: Any number (No more than 10 on the court at one time)

Equipment:Pinnies, hoops and basketballs

Area: Playground/ Gymnasium

Skills: All the skills in basketball, except dribbling

Description of Activity

• The object of the game is to score as in basketball.
• Each team is lined up and numbered off along the outside sidelines of the basketball court.
• The game is played like a regulation basketball game, with the exception that no player within the court can pass directly to another court player.
• The court players must pass it to a sideline player in order to advance the ball.
• The ball may not be dribbled in the court.
• Sideline players must stay off the court.
• Numbers are called to determine the court players each time.
• Once the ball has been scored, the court players return to the sideline, waiting to hear the numbers of the next court players.

Scoring: Two points are given to the team who scored the basket. 

(Adapted from “Lead-Up Games to Team Sports”- O. William Blake/ Anne M. Volp)

Basketball Golf

Equipment: one basketball per foursome (group)

Description of Activity:

• Students work in groups of 4 each with their own ball
• While students are forming groups, place ”hole” numbers on the floor at each basket so that there are 9 holes in all (using all baskets)
• Each basket will have a few different holes with each hole marker indicating a different place for taking the shot
• Each foursome starts at a different basket and/or a different spot at the basket (each basket will have 2-3 starting points depending on the number of baskets your gymnasium contains)
• Students move form hole to hole recording their accumulated score as they go…this is done on the golf score card
• Par is determined by the distance and the angle for each hole (starting point)

Basketball Golf Tee Card

Name:______________________________________

Hole	Par (Goal)	Combined Score)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Total

Strategy of offense

In sports, offense (US) or offence (Can.) (see spelling differences; pronounced with first-syllable stress; from Latin offensus), also known as attack, is the action of attacking or engaging an opposing team with the objective of scoring points or goals. The term may refer to the tactics involved in offense, or a sub-team whose primary responsibility is offense.

Strategy of defense

In many team sports, defence or defense is the action of preventing an opponent from scoring. The term may also refer to the tactics involved in defense, or a sub-team whose primary responsibility is defense. Similarly, a defense player or defender is a player who is generally charged with preventing the other team's forwards from being able to bear down directly on their own team's goalkeeper or goaltender. Such intentions exist in association football, ice hockey, water polo and many other sports.

Principles of Offense and Defense

Offensive Principles

The five attacking principles are penetration, support/depth, mobility, width and creativity/improvisation.

Penetration refers to getting inside and behind the defense’s shape.

Mobility is an offense’s movement and flexibility, so its shape and direction are never predictable or repetitive.

Width is the ability of an offense to use the entire width of the field to spread out a defense and enable penetration or dangerous one-on-one isolation around the field.

Creativity or improvisation are the offense’s attacking freedom. As much as the principles is critical, following rote attacking directions make an offense easy to oppose. Improvisation allows attackers to express themselves, be unpredictable and find new ways to forge chances.

Five Defensive Principles

The five defensive principles are delay, depth, balance, concentration and composure/discipline/patience.

Delay is the defense’s ability to slow down an offense to disrupt the pace and/or numerical advantage of an attack.

Depth is a defense’s placement on the field -- too deep and there is too much space for an offense to hold the ball in front of them, too shallow and there is too much space for an offense to get behind.

Balance refers to a defense’s strength all over the field, not just those directly defending the ball.

Concentration is a defense’s focus, which is critical to avoid simple mistakes like miskicks that can give opponents undeserved opportunities.

Composure/discipline/patience is an intangible that an entire team must possess to maintain defensive shape and the other four principles even while under constant pressure.

CONCEPTS OF CONDITIONING:

SAID principle

The SAID principle (Specific Adaptation to Imposed Demands) and the concept of sport-specificity are simple and proven training strategies that will provide superior results and help to get your athletes hooked on training. The basic principle behind SAID is that body systems will adapt over time to the specific stresses that are placed on them. The more you ask of each athlete’s body, the greater the response in training results and performance. When combined with the concept of sport-specificity, the SAID principle warrants the application of select conditioning activities that relate to an athlete’s particular sport, to target specific systems in an attempt to improve their contribution to sport performance.  When done properly, these exercises will mimic the function and movements that the athlete performs during competition.

In fact the conditioning programs for different player positions in the same sport may differ significantly. Selecting appropriate exercises for a conditioning program will result in better athletic performance. Once the specific exercises have been selected, you will be ready to add resistance to those movements using the progressive overload technique.

Overload

Progressive overload refers to a systematic approach to the gradual increase of stress placed upon the body during training. In many instances a coach may be hoping to increase the muscle mass of his athletes, or increase strength and endurance. By gradually increasing the amount of resistance applied during an exercise, the body will respond and adapt by recruiting additional motor units or building more muscle mass. In order to minimize injury, and maximize results, an athlete must begin with a comfortable amount of weight until movement techniques are perfected, then advance toward overload of muscles as the training progresses. Again, progressive overload suggests a gradual increase in volume and intensity, and this should be carefully monitored. 

Recovery:

Most overlooked aspects of optimized training comes after the fact, in the form of recovery. This is the phase when all of the growth and improvement happens to the body, and it should not be ignored. During effective training, the body actually experiences a breakdown stimulus, with the cells and tissues experiencing controlled levels of trauma and damage. In ideal conditions, over the following 36 to 72 hours, these structures undergo their recuperative process.

Conditions for optimal recovery:

• Adequate Rest – the time between workouts is critical
• Adequate Sleep – maximizing the recuperative process
• Adequate Nutrition – nutrients are necessary for cellular repair
• Controlled Negative Stress – emotional, physical and chemical stress can be detrimental

Overtraining

Overtraining syndrome is the name given to the collection of emotional, behavioral, and physical symptoms due to overtraining that has persisted for weeks to months. Athletes and coaches may refer to it as "burnout" or "staleness." Overtraining is different from the day-to-day variation in performance and post exercise tiredness that is common in conditioned athletes.

WARMING UP

Warming up is performed before a performance or practice. Athletes, singers, actors and others warm up before stressing their muscles. It prepares^[how?] the muscles for vigorous actions.A warm up generally consists of a gradual increase in intensity in physical activity (a "pulse raiser"), joint mobility exercise, and stretching, followed by the activity. Warming up brings the body to a condition at which it safely responds to nerve signals for quick and efficient action.Warm-up programs can improve the strength of the knee muscle, which, in turn, may decrease injuries.^[

Direct physical effects of warm ups are:

• Release of adrenaline
• Increased heart rate
• Enabling oxygen in the blood to travel with greater speed and at a higher volume
• Increased production of synovial fluid located between the joints to reduce friction
• Efficiency of joint
• Dilation of capillaries
• Increase of temperature in the muscles
• Decreased viscosity of blood
• Facilitation of enzyme activity
• Encouragement of the dissociation of oxygen from hemoglobin
• Decreased viscosity^{[clarification needed]} within the muscle
• Greater extensibility and elasticity of muscle fibres
• Increased force and speed of contraction
• Increase of muscle metabolism
• Supply of energy through breakdown of glycogen
• Increase in speed of nerve impulse conduction
• Removal of lactic acid
• Increased respiratory rate

TYPES OF WARMING UP:

There are several key elements of a safe, effective warmup. Elements of an effective warmup include (it is recommended that warmups follow this order) ^[5]:

• The General Warm Up

General warm ups increase temperature using non-specific body movements. ^[6] Common practices include 5-10 minutes of light (low intensity) physical activity such as walking, jogging on the spot or on a trampoline, controlled arm circles, jumping jacks, jump rope, low intensity pool laps, etc. ^[7]

• Static Stretching

Stretching is best performed after the muscles are warm, so it is recommended that all stretching be done after a general warm-up. Stretching muscles when they are cold may lead to a tear. Static stretching (stretching a muscle and holding it in this position without discomfort for 10-30 seconds) is considered the safest method of stretching. One shouldn't spend so long doing stretches that the muscles cool down and heart rate returns to normal. It is better to save most static stretching for after an exercise session, after your cool-down. ^[7] Another thing to consider is that there are few sports where achieving static flexibility is advantageous to success in the sport. According to the principle of specificity it would seem to be more advantageous to perform a dynamic warm-up which more resembles the activity of the sport.^[8]

Apart from static stretching, other methods of stretching include ballistic, dynamic and PNF (proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation) stretching.

• The Sport-specific Warm Up

Specific warm ups increase temperature using similar biomechanics that are to be used in subsequent, more strenuous activity.^[6] Some of the best ways to perform a specific warm up is to perform the upcoming exercise at a slow pace. Examples include brief sessions of easy catching practice for cricketers or baseball players, high knees or jogging for runners, shadow boxing for boxers, or side-stepping and slow-paced practice hits for tennis players. Sport-specific warm-ups are often designed by a qualified trainer in that sport. ^[7]

• Dynamic Stretching

Dynamic stretching consists of a series of exaggerated yet controlled motions similar in nature to the activity that follows. It is similar to the sport-specific warmup. It should be noted that while it increases the range of motion of the joints, it does not promote as much flexibility as static stretching or PNF. This is why it is advisable for athletes to perform static stretching or PNF early on in the training plan to build the flexibility firsthand (if it's needed for their particular sport), and utilize dynamic stretching prior to activity or competition. ^[9] Typical dynamic stretches include hip, knee, arm, and ankle circles, lunges, high knees, etc.

COOLING DOWN

Cooling down (also known as "warm down") (the prescribed event of which is called a cool down, cooldown, or cool-down; or warm down, in allusion to use in combination with warm up) is an easy exercise, done after a more intense activity, to allow the body to gradually transition to a resting or near-resting state. Depending on the intensity of the exercise, cooling down can involve a slow jog or walk. With lower intensities stretching can be used. Cooling down allows the heart rate to return to its resting rate. Anecdotally cooling down may reduce dizziness for professional or serious athletes and vocal performers after strenuous workouts.

Stretching

Stretching is a very important factor in the procedure of cooling down. Stretching allows the bodies muscles to build elasticity and repair from aerobic and anaerobic exercise.

Static stretching is the appropriate form of stretching to aid in the cooling down procedure. It aids in decreasing the body’s temperature, removing lactic acid from the muscles and increasing flexibility.^[6] Each stretch should be held for a minimum of 10–20 seconds and stretched to the point of mild discomfort but not pain.^[8] Each muscle used in mid-high intensity exercise should then be stretched during the cool down